hofstede cultural dimensions masculinity vs femininity

Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Looking at Individualism, for instance, a life cycle effect implies that younger people always start out at a relatively high level of Individualism but then turn less individualistic as time passes by. For example, a country with a high femininity score is likely to have better maternity leave policies and more affordable child care. Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. In contrast, Hofstede says a feminine culture or feminine society is one where gender roles are more fluid. Relatively weak control is called Indulgence and relatively strong control is called Restraint. As many of these became independent around 1990, the missing data problem is relatively small. behaviors, As cutting the sample by (a) cohort, (b) survey year, and (c) country does not yield a sufficient number of observations per cohort, we keep the sample of countries the same in each survey round and compare the overall group of countries. While Hofstede is known for identifying several dimensions of cross-cultural variation, Ingleharts key contribution consists in a dynamic theory of cultural change. From an empirical point of view, Hofstedes six-dimensional framework (4 IBM-based + 2 WVS-based) consists of four dimensions (3 IBM-based + 1 WVS-based).6 As explained in detail in Hofstedes Dimensions: A WVS-EVS Based Re-Examination section below, our WVS-EVS based analysis mimics this correlational structure. Hofstede G., Hofstede G. J., Minkov M. (2010). Value orientations from the World Values Survey: How comparable are they cross-nationally? Hence, a society composed of non-cooperating, selfish egoists is against human nature and outright impossible. Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design. 5.We doubt this conceptual distinction. Retrieved from, Hofstedes model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faitha failure of analysis, Dynamic diversity: Variety and variation within countries, Cultural differences in a globalizing world, A revision of Hofstedes model of national culture: Old evidence and new data from 56 countries, Genetic polymorphisms predict national differences in life history strategy and time orientation, Hofstedes fifth dimension: New evidence from the World Values Survey, A replication of Hofstedes uncertainty avoidance dimension across nationally representative samples from Europe, Historical prevalence of infectious diseases in 230 geopolitical regions, Beyond Hofstede: Cultural frameworks for global marketing and management. We define five birth cohorts: 1900-1919, 1920-1939, 1940-1959, 1960-1979, and 1980-1999. Note: Advanced postindustrial democracies (N = 25; Nrespondents = 153,868) include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmarka, Finland, Francea, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italya, Japan, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United States. Former Soviet Satellites (N = 9; Nrespondents = 51,008) include Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. In fact, Welzel (2013) even shows evidence for divergence, as those countries having been ahead in matters of emancipation already decades ago moved even faster toward more emancipation, Scandinavia and Sweden being the clearest cases in point. 17.In addition to GDP per capita, we have explored a broader indicator of welfare. All information required to replicate the material presented in this article are available at this journals website. Specifically, the item asking respondents whether they feel that one lives to make parents proud captures the notion of obedience and hierarchy in the family sphere. Table A3 in the online appendix provides all measurement details of the selected items.10 The correlational wave-averaged analysis yields a set of 15 items that fulfill all of the above criteria, that is, considerable country coverage, multiple wave coverage, attitude-based, and significantly correlated with country scores on the four original Hofstede dimensions or included to calculate country scores in the fifth and sixth dimension. Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory Hofstede identified six categories that define culture: Power Distance Index Collectivism vs. Individualism Uncertainty Avoidance Index Femininity vs. Masculinity Short-Term vs. The selection of the variables is based on the set of ecological factors identified by Varnum and Grossmann (2017) as deep determinants of cultural change, complemented by variables taken from the literature on remote determinants of socioeconomic and human development (e.g., Murray & Schaller, 2010; Parker, 2010; Spolaore & Wacziarg, 2009). As one would expect given the lagging economic growth, the effect is less pronounced for developing societies. A succinct overview of the questions underlying these six dimensions can be found in Table A1 in the online appendix. House R. J., Hanges P. J., Javidan M., Dorfman P. W., Gupta V. (2004). Hence, we expect no clear direction on the DistrustTrust dimension covering both horizontal and vertical trust. Country scores for the fifth and sixth dimension, Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation (LTO) and Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR), have been added later. Note: Advanced postindustrial democracies (N = 25; Nrespondents = 153,868) include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmarka, Finland, Francea, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italya, Japan, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United States. These societies emphasize traits such as persistence, perseverance, thrift, saving, long-term growth, and the capacity for adaptation. In addition, we calculate reliability scores, and test if the reliability of the dimension can be further increased by leaving out specific items. These cohort dummies increase for CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy, and they decrease (i.e., more negative) for DistrustTrust. Interestingly, whereas higher scores on trust have been shown to have a positive effect on economic development (Beugelsdijk, De Groot, & van Schaik, 2004; Beugelsdijk & van Schaik, 2005), our cohort analysis shows that over time generations have moved in the direction toward distrust. For such a change to happen, it needs no agent, no campaign, no program, and no particular political systemsuch as democracybecause emancipatory value change is a self-driven automatism by which the human mind adjusts its programming to changing existential conditions. Email: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (, ONLINE_APPENDIX_final Supplemental material for Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart, GUID:08293F7A-C497-4190-AD31-59B6B0A38C81. 6.2: Hofstede's dimensions of culture theory - Social Sci LibreTexts PPTX PowerPoint-presentatie - Geert Hofstede Trust and confidence levels are rather high among people born before 1940, but decrease for younger generations. Are scores on Hofstedes dimensions stable over time? These findings connect and enrich two literatures concerned with similar phenomena yet operating in isolation from each other. Geert Hofstede is a Dutch social psychologist who is known for his work on cultural dimensions theory. Drastic events may affect generations differently and different generations may therefore have different fixpoints around which they adjust their values to changing circumstances (Hofstede, 1980). That is to say; this dimension is a measure of societal impulse and desire control. Finally, the restraint and indulgence dimension considers the extent and tendency of a society to fulfill its desires. By contrast, if one lets the data decide if the 20 items cohere in two clearly distinct dimensions, the answer is a resounding No: There is just one dimension, which is mostly due to the fact that the traditional end in Traditional versus Secular-rational Values and the survival end in Survival versus Self-expression Values are highly convergent (Li & Bond, 2010). Short-term orientation in a society, in contrast, indicates a focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term success or gratification and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future. Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern or Nordic exceptionalism? As concerns DistrustTrust, the prediction is ambivalent because a shift from existential pressures to opportunities is supposed to increase horizontal trust in other people but to decrease vertical trust in hierarchical institutions. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. The majority of the population is Black African, and their scores may be very different from those presented above. Examples of Cultural Dimensions - American Speech-Language-Hearing Hofstede's four dimensions of culture are power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, and uncertainty avoidance. % of people who say that country is run by big interest, Important child quality: thrift saving money and things, % of people who say that thrift is important, Taking all things together, would you say you are, Please indicate how much freedom of choice and control you feel you have over the way your life turns out, 1. The IBM studies revealed that (a) womens values differ less among societies than mens values; (b) mens values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from womens values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to womens values on the other. The re-examination of Hofstedes dimensions serves to explore the nature of cultural change along these dimensions. The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals) from each other. In addition to these items, we further screen the WVS-EVS questionnaire for more items resonating with the content of Hofstedes original four dimensions: Individualism versus Collectivism, Power Distance versus Closeness, Uncertainty Avoidance versus Acceptance, and Masculinity versus Femininity. The implication of this is that cultures endorse and expect relations that are more consultative or democratic, or egalitarian. There are three possible outcomes regarding cultural change: (a) there is no cultural change, in which case country scores and rankings remain the same; (b) there is cultural change but it does not follow a uniform trend, instead showing recessive shifts in some countries but progressive ones in others; and (c) there is cultural change and it does follow a uniform trend in that most countries move in the same direction, whether recessive or progressive. Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. Both the institutions and individuals within these societies seek to minimize the unknown through strict rules, regulations, and so forth. Culture Defined - Referred to as an individual's identification with and acceptance into a group that shares symbols, meanings, experiences, and behavior o Cross-cultural communication is the comparison of two or more cultural communities (Ting-Toomey, 1991) o Intercultural communication involves . What all these studies have in common is that they highlight the significant impact Hofstedes framework has had on various fields, specifically cross-cultural management, international business, comparative management, and cross-cultural psychology (Beugelsdijk et al., 2018; Beugelsdijk et al., 2017; Sndergaard, 1994). Returning to Hofstede's cultural information dimensions model concerned with masculinity, in which the nation of China scored a sixty-six in comparison to the world average of 49.53. This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal it expresses the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us. Virtual programme Cross-Cultural Management, The Multi-Focus Model on Organisational Culture. We draw similar graphs for the DutyJoy dimension (N = 47 countries), and the DistrustTrust dimension (N = 44 countries). This research is guided by a conceptual model that is underpinned by theories of Hofstede (1984) cultural dimensions, and service quality drawn from management context. Masculinity versus femininity cultural dimension serves as an indication for the level of appreciation for traditional masculine values of achievement, status and power within a group. As a consequence, the emphasis on individual self-determination goes together with an emphasis on equal opportunities, giving rise to emancipative values that support universal freedoms (Welzel, 2013). To begin with DutyJoy, the most important marker of country specificities in this dimension is the fate of having been part of the Soviet Union and an occupied territory around 1900. Two other dimensions were added in later years by Hofstede and independent researchers: long-term orientation and indulgence vs. self-restraint. This means there is a high preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. In addition, they place a higher degree of importance on leisure time, act as they please and spend money as they wish. Advancing Your Career. With the above limitation in mind, our main findings regarding cultural change can be summarized as follows: It needs to be emphasized that our analyses have been conducted at the group level, which is the level at which culture operates in shaping the norms and beliefs of individuals. The evolutionary logic in the works of Inglehart and Welzel predicts a generational shift from orientations dominant under pressing existential threats (i.e., survival orientations) toward orientations dominant under abundant existential opportunities (i.e., emancipative orientations)to the extent to which socioeconomic development indeed changed objective living conditions that way. Below, we correlate these country-specific factors for the three dimensions with a series of exogenous variables related to precolonial opportunity endowments embodied in geography and subsequent colonial histories (a detailed overview of these variables and their sources can be found in Online Appendix Table A8). Together, Hofstede and Inglehart have received over 200,000 citations, making them two of the worlds most frequently quoted social scientists (Google Scholar). Hofstede, G., & Minkov, M. (2010). 14.Because of the break-up of countries, the data series are not complete. A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. cultural dimensions with language learning behaviours and learning styles under different cultural contexts and learning environments. Femininity is seen to be the trait which stress caring and nurturing Individualism and collectivism, respectively, refer to the integration of individuals into groups. People within these cultures also tend to be more emotional. Figure 1 depicts the scores of 46 countries on the CollectivismIndividualism dimension at the time when the first survey was held in each country and the time that the last survey was held. Cultural shifts affect outcomes typically studied in cross-cultural psychology and international management because these shifts reduce the possibility to make absolute comparisons over time. In addition to the 10 remaining items, we use the six items already used by Hofstede et al. Cultural distance and firm internationalization: A meta-analytic review and theoretical implications. Moreover, citizens lack confidence in civil service and feel that the law is usually against them. Number of countries is mentioned between parentheses. roles. Inglehart and Welzel (2005) have summarized these findings in a revised theory of modernization. Welzel (2013) has developed this theory further into an evolutionary theory of emancipation, pointing out some key qualifications of emancipatory value change. p 297. Review Hofstedes country ranking for Masculinity / Femininity. The coverage is limited for the first cohort (1900-1919). On the other hand, in countries with high power distance, parents expect children to obey without questioning. 8:00AM and 16:00PM CEST Hofstedes data collection procedure and sample has been questioned on grounds of representativeness (Baskerville, 2003; McSweeney, 2002, 2009). While national scores on LTO were originally available only for a limited number of countries, Hofstede et al. The pattern for Trust is different. Our finding on the importance of country-specific factors rooted in history and geography and climate resonates very well with cross-cultural studies highlighting the importance of such ecological factors to understand cross-country cultural scores (Georgas & Berry, 1995; Kashima & Kashima, 2003; van de Vliert, 2006, 2011). ed. Hofstedes dimensions have been found to correlate with a variety of other country difference variables, including: For example, countries that share a border tend to have more similarities in culture than those that are further apart. Masculine traits include assertiveness, materialism/material success, self-centeredness, power, strength, and individual achievements. The question as to whether nationals are privileged over immigrants when jobs are scarce is directly related to the definition of Power Distance as given by Globe. BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester. Conceptually, the CollectivismIndividualism dimension describes the relationship between the individual and the collectivity (Hofstede, 2001, p. 209), in particular the extent to which people are autonomous individuals or embedded in their groups (Triandis & Gelfand, 2012, p. 499). Individualistic societies stress achievement and individual rights, focusing on the needs of oneself and ones immediate family. Masculinity is seen to be the trait which emphasizes It may even increase differences; on the basis of preexisting value systems, societies cope with technological modernization in different ways (Hofstede, 2001). It has a Cronbachs alpha of .87. Welzel argues that the Cool Water condition is a root cause of the emancipatory dynamic that Western civilization has taken. Table 4 shows the rotated loadings. We thank the reviewer for pointing this out. Critiqued Cultural Dimensions This interpretation is supported by the fact that differences in what Minkov and Bond (2015) call the long-term life strategy gene complex maps on the DistrustTrust difference, with Sub-Saharan Africans and East Asians being the most polar groups. Data on all birth cohorts covering the entire 20th century is available for 21 countries. A recent replication of the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension using data from the European Social Survey highlights the relevance of anxiety and stress (Minkov & Hofstede, 2014). We have data on all three dimensions for 68 countries for four cohorts, and limited data for the first cohort for 21 countries. Given the downward-sloping cohort pattern in the earliest survey and given that there is no life-cyclical decline in Trust as cohorts age, mere cohort replacement would have shifted downward the mean level of Trust over time. 8.We would note that Hofstede himself has been quoted for saying that If I would do it again, I would use the WVS, clearly suggesting his generally favorable approach toward the WVS. Otherwise, the younger cohorts higher scores on Individualism and Joy during the earliest survey would have to be declining as these cohorts aged, which is not at all the case. Femininity vs. masculinity, also known as gender role differentiation, is yet another one of Hofstedes six dimensions of national culture. This logical link underlies the close empirical connection. Since then, it's become an internationally recognized standard for understanding cultural differences. Workaholism is another expression of their Masculinity. However, Hofstede (1991) changed the name of this dimension using the more general label of Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation. (PDF) HOFSTEDE S MAS/FEM DIMENSION - ResearchGate On the other hand, people in countries high on restraint are more likely to believe that gratification should be curbed and that it should be regulated by strict social norms (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010: 281). Using the Trust label for this dimension resonates well with the vast literature on trust in economics (e.g., Zak & Knack, 2001), political science (e.g., Fukuyama, 1995; Putnam, 1993, 2000), and sociology (e.g., Delhey & Newton, 2005). The remainder of this article is structured as follows. Of these 26 items, six were included by Hofstede to calculate country scores on his two additional dimensions, and 20 correlate with any of the four original Hofstede dimensions. We drop the item how important is service to others in the LTO dimension, because this question is only available for 39 countries. Masculinity is seen to be the trait which emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender roles. This dimension was also identified on the basis of WVS items and reflects the degree to which people are inclined to express emotions and enjoy momentary pleasures (Indulgence) or to what extent they suppress emotional impulses and have a need for discipline and strict codes of conduct. Collectively, our findings imply that national cultural differences are quite persistent over time. Singelis T. M., Triandis H. C., Bhawuk D. P. S., Gelfand M. (1995). For example, if a company wants to sell its products in a country with a high collectivism score, it may need to design its packaging and advertising to appeal to groups rather than individuals. Without socialization we do not become human. (2010) included. The datasets we use are the WVS and the EVS. This theoretical framework has been confirmed by recent findings in psychology using completely different data. Although the cultural value dimensions identified by Hofstede and others are useful ways to think about culture and study cultural psychology, the theory has been chronically questioned and critiqued. Founded in 1989, WITI (Women in Technology International) is committed to empowering innovators, inspiring future generations and building inclusive cultures, worldwide. For example, a student may be more accepting of a teacher saying they do not know the answer to a question in a low uncertainty avoidance culture than in a high uncertainty avoidance one (Hofstede, 1980). The STATA command we use is xtreg depvar indpvars, fe, cluster(country). The alternative is to apply a DriscollKraay estimator (the xtscc command in STATA), but this results in smaller standard errors and larger t values. Pairwise Correlations Between 15 WVS-EVS Items and Hofstedes Dimensions (p < .05). Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. Cultural differences can be explained by three factors: (a) economic development, (b) generational effects, and (c) a countrys unique geographic location and (political) history. Emergence: Aligning Purpose and Profit Summit, WITI Member Orientation, Update and Networking, Advancements in Generative Artificial Intelligence. Such an approach would work in a single or two-country study (e.g., Egri & Ralston, 2004), but it is practically impossible to define generations in each country based on each countrys unique historical and political experiences when the sample includes more than 10 countries. with They want firm rules and strict codes of behavior. Italy - Hofstede Insights

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hofstede cultural dimensions masculinity vs femininity

hofstede cultural dimensions masculinity vs femininity